Homosexuality in Victorian and Elizabethan Literature.

Alexander Lucero AP English 12 Yu 5.17.12 Homosexuality Portrayed in Literature: Threat To Yourself and Those Around You The Victorian era and Elizabethan era had many homophobic attributes, just as todays society does. Gothic writers of the Victorian Age played off of the fear and immorality of homosexuality and used those feelings as a basis for their novels. Bram Stoker told a story about a vampire that challenged the Victorian gender roles and managed to reverse them, making men faint like women, and making women powerful like men, and called it Dracula. Mary Shelley created a a physical being out of a mans suppressed homosexuality due to his Victorian male upbringing; a man named Frankenstein. Robert Stevenson described what†¦show more content†¦People believe that by allowing homosexuals to marry that it will threaten â€Å"the sanctity of marriage†. Homosexual men are infamous for being promiscuous, at least that is the label that has been placed on most if not all homosexual men, and for this reason sexually transmitted diseases have become something expected of them. This must have been a belief in the Victorian era, since syphilis was the disease that was feared and said to have come from sodomy. In this era, violence from society also attacked homosexuality. Homosexuals were hung, or lynched. (Sadownick par. 5) This history of homophobia shows that it grows in society from a persons upbringing. Things occur in a persons life that cause them to act in certain ways and believe specific things. The public hatred of gay men taught the generations that being gay was wrong, and that people that were gay needed to be punished. Homophobia was strong in the days of the Gothic writers, and though it has weakened, it still affects people in todays society. It even dates back to the Renaissance days, and is presented by Dante Aligheri is his Inferno. And for this reason doth the smallest round/ Seal with its signet Sodom[...]†. Sodom is a city known for crude sexual acts, which is where sodomy gets its name from. Since the Inferno is a world created by Dante, he believes that sodomy is a sin that is worse than suicide, and decides to put it just before the entranceShow MoreRelatedThe Twelfth Night, By Oscar Wilde1158 Words   |  5 Pageslove and courtship by altering the gender roles of Elizab ethan society. In the beginning of the play, Olivia has recently lost her husband. Due to her unbearable grief, she commits herself to seclusion and celibacy for the next seven years. In the meantime, the powerful nobleman Orsino has fallen madly in love with Olivia. As Olivia exhibits passiveness and becomes the object of desire of a man, she follows the conventional feminine norms of Elizabethan era England. However, feminine gender roles are

Shakespeares Hamlet - The Reality of Appearances Essay

The Reality of Appearances in Hamlet Within Hamlet the notion of appearances (through apparitions and mental afflictions) lies in direct dichotomy of reality. This becomes evident through both plot and character. The continual demise in Hamlet’s mental state is an important issue which leads us to question his actions and motives within the play. In this essay I shall be attempting to elucidate how the reality of appearances is a central theme. The plays plot is full of incidents and events that are not what they appear to be. One such incident is Ophelias ambiguous death. When, from the Queen, the audience first learns of her passing, the girls death seems very peaceful, poetic and accidental. But later,†¦show more content†¦There are also many spy plots set up during the play which may also be considered as deceiving events. These spy plots demonstrate the appearance versus reality theme since they are invisible to the spied upon, but weave a web of dishonesty. In Act II, Scene 1, Polonius sends Reynaldo to spy on Laertes. Polonius does not trust his own son. Later, Hamlet directs a play entitled The Mouse Trap in order to spy on the King, Claudius. He does this to know whether or not Claudius is guilty of his own brothers murder. Hamlet is by far the most observed character throughout the play. Claudius first calls upon two of Hamlets old friends, Rozencrantz and Guildenstern. He asks them to try to find the source of Hamlets madness. Polonius and the King himself later spy on Hamlet. This time, they use Ophelia to try to expose the reason of Hamlets madness. Another spy scene occurs in the Closet Scene when Polonius eavesdrops on Hamlet and the Queen. This proves fatal for the old lord chamberlain. Through Ophelias death, the Triple-Pronged plan, and the various spy plots, the audience becomes aware of the beguiling nature of Hamlets plot. Shakespeare also used the characters in Hamlet to explore the theme of appearance versus reality. For example, Rozencrantz and Guildenstern appear to be Hamlets friends but they are, in reality, spying on him for Claudius. As well,Show MoreRelated Reality and Illusion in Shakespeares Hamlet - Appearance and Reality1313 Words   |  6 PagesAppearance and Reality in Hamlet    In today’s society, appearance is everything. What brand do you wear? What hairstyle do you have? What color is your skin? Are you fat? Are you â€Å"cool†? However, appearances are often deceiving, and sometimes first impressions are anything but accurate. The deceptive quality of appearance plays a major role in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. Throughout the entire play, Shakespeare addresses the theme of appearance versus reality through plot and characterizationRead More Reality and Illusion in Shakespeares Hamlet - Reality, Appearance and Deception875 Words   |  4 PagesReality and Illusion in Hamlet    Shakespeare’s play, Hamlet, begins with the appearance of a ghost, an apparition, possibly a hallucination. 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In other words,Read MoreEssay about Appearance vs. Reality in Shakespeares Hamlet497 Words   |  2 PagesAppearance vs. Reality in Shakespeares Hamlet In Hamlet deceiving illusions are frequently used to protect truth from being a destructive force. Situations within acts one and two that appear to be true and honest are really contaminated with evil. Various characters within the first two acts hide behind masks of corruption. In the first two acts most characters presented seem to be good and honest making it a complex task for Hamlet to discover all the lies that have hidden objectives withinRead MoreEssay about Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet1007 Words   |  5 PagesAppearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet In Hamlet, one of Shakespeares greatest tragedies, there is a prevailing theme that is concurrent throughout the play. Throughout the play, all the characters appear to be one thing on the outside, yet on the inside they are completely different. 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It becomes difficult when we assume there isRead MoreThe Theme of Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Works729 Words   |  3 PagesThe Theme of Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Works Characters within one of William Shakespeares greatest tragic plays, Hamlet, appear to be true and honest but in reality are infested with many falsehoods and deceptions. Characters such as Polonius, Claudius, and Hamlet give an impression of a person who is sincere and genuine, but behind their masks are plagued with lies and evil. As

Financial Reporting International Financial Reporting Standards

Question: Discuss about the Financial Reporting for International Financial Reporting Standards. Answer: Introduction To The Companies Wesfarmers Wesfarmers Limited is an Australia-based conglomerate, founded in 1914, with its headquarters at Perth. The company predominantly specialises in New Zealand and Australian retail, together with fertilisers, industrial and safety products, coal mining and chemicals. It has become the biggest Australian company in terms of revenue with AU$62.7 billion in the year 2015, surpassing mining giant BHP Billion and retail competitor Woolworths Limited. Wesfarmers is also the biggest private employer in the country, with a workforce of 205,000 people (IBIS Wrold, 2015). Initially established as a co-operative to offer merchandise and services to Western Australian farmers, the company was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange in 1984 and henceforth grew into a big retail conglomerate. On becoming a public organisation, it diversified its interests through a series of mergers and acquisitions. Wesfarmers purchased Cole, an Australian supermarket, convenience, fuel and liquor retailer in 2007 (Who we are, 2015). Another division of the Group is the Home Improvement and Office Supplies which is made up of the Bunning Warehouse, a retailer of outdoor living and home improvement products, serving commercial and home consumers in New Zealand and Australia; and Officeworks, a supplier and retailer of office merchandise for home, education and business in Australia. Wesfarmers department store business is restructured into a single division named Department Stores wherein Kmart and Target are two major department store retailers. The company is also into industrial businesses i.e. Chemicals, Energy and Fertilizers; Industrial and Safety; and Resources (Wesfarmers Sustainability Report, 2012). The Group has 8 subsidiaries and 79 executives. The organisational structure is divisional with every division having its own structure. Decision making is reserved for the senior management in every division. Wesfarmers has secured many national and international awards and accolades for outstanding works in different streams. A 12% increase in export sales during 2008/09 in the site of the worst and biggest fall in global demand in 40 years, helped Wesfarmers Curragh secure the countrys most esteemed business exporting honour for the Minerals and Energy category (Wesfarmers Resources, 2012). Woolworths Limited Woolworths Limited is an Australian firm with widespread retail interest all across New Zealand and Australia. It is the second biggest company in terms of revenue in Australia after Wesfarmers and the second biggest in New Zealand. Moreover, it is the biggest takeaway liquor retailer in the nation. The main operations of Woolworths Limited, which was founded in 1924, include liquor retailing (as Dan Murphys and BWS in Australia), supermarkets (under the brand name Countdown in New Zealand, and Woolworths in Australia), discount department chains as Big W in Australia, and pubs and hotels under the ALH Group umbrella (IBIS World, 2015). The Group enjoys market leading positions in all the major markets. It is 30% larger in Australian Food and Liquor than its closest rival. Masters stands second in the immensely appealing Home Improvement market. Woolworths is also the biggest domestic internet based retailer in Australia (McArthur, 2013). Again a divisional hierarchical structure is followed in the organisation, with the BOD acting on behalf of its shareholders in controlling the functions and preserving good corporate governance. The Management Board is also charged with the responsibility of managing decisions and operations. As a brand, Woolworths has come to signify outstanding quality and has attained an iconic status in a country where people fondly refer to it as Woolies. The Group has also been bestowed with several awards for its sustainable development initiatives. It was awarded the Disability Employment Award at the Australian Resources Institutes Diversity Awards in 2013 for its disability recruitment drive. Together with its partner WorkFocus, the company was recognised for developing a booklet How to Guide for Recruiting People with Disability. This was designed to help store managers across the organisation to better comprehend the processes and benefits of hiring disabled people (Woolworths Limited, 2013). Sources of Finance Short Term Finance Wesfarmers The business uses short-term business finance to grab quick opportunities which require the business transaction to be finished in short time. The total short-term finance as per companys balance sheet for the year ended June 2015 amount to AU$1,913. These include bank overdrafts (AU$6), Corporate bonds (AU$1,584), and other bank loans (AU$323) (Wesfarmers, 2015). Bank overdrafts allow the company to write checks for an amount greater than what they have in their account during a given period of time. This is especially beneficial when the cash flow moves in and out several times in a month. Moreover, it ensures timely payments thereby avoiding penalties. Corporate bonds which make up the highest proportion of Wesfarmers short-term borrowings, prove to b a highly flexible means of raising debt capital. Wesfarmers has both unsecured current and unsecured non-current corporate bonds, however, the figure mentioned above is in respect of unsecured current corporate bonds (Ehr hardt and Brigham, 2008). These bonds stabilise the companys financed by having significant debts at a fixed interest. This provides protection against the dynamic economic changes and variable rates of interest. Short term Bank Loans enables the retailer to repay the loan amount in a shorter duration and with less interest (Rigby, 2011). Woolworths Woolworths also makes use of short-term sources to finance its short-term business needs. The total short-term finance of the company for the year ended June 2015 was AU$1,645. This included short-term money market loans (AU$10), bank loans (AU$23.8), short-term securities (AU$1,609.9), and finance leases (AU$1.7). All these are unsecured sources of funds. With help of a lease, the company does not need to buy a product which may not be required in the long term, and this source also reduces the business costs (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Long Term Finance Long Term Debt Wesfarmers The company uses long-term debts to finance its fixed asset needs, to fund its permanent component of working capital, to expand its divisions and many other purposes. Long-term debt comprises of financial obligations and loans lasting for more than one year. Wesfarmers total long-term borrowings for the year ended June 2015 were AU$4,615 (Wesfarmers, 2015). This comprised of non-current unsecured corporate bonds of the same value. This implies that the company did not take any long-term bank loans and funded its long-term needs completely through corporate bonds. WoolworthsWoolworths also depends on long-term debts for buying fixed assets, increasing facilities and business expansion purposes. The companys total long-term borrowings for the year ended June 2015 amount to AU$3,079. Woolworths, however, has a diversified portfolio of long-term borrowings, including long-term securities (AU$2,384.6), Finance leases (AU$2.9), and Woolworths Notes II (AU$696.5) (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Equity This is the ownership capital of a company. Any public limited firm can raise funds from promoters or public as equity share capital via the issuance of ordinary equity shares. The owners of Ordinary shares get their return on capital and dividend once the preference shareholders are paid (Kumar and Francisco, 2005). Wesfarmers The shareholders equity in the company for the year ending June 2015 was AU$21,844. These include own shares acquired (Wesfarmers. 2015). Woolworths The owners own equity in Woolworths for the year ending June 2015 was AU$5,064.9. These include fully paid ordinary shares (AU$4,850.1), shares issued because of share options and rights exercised under employee long-term incentive plans (AU$.3), and shares issued because of dividend reinvestment plan (AU$6.5) (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Capital Structure and Financial Ratio Analysis Capital Structure Wesfarmers The main goal of Wesfarmers capital structure is to give a suitable return to its shareholders. Wesfarmers capital is a combination of net debt, shareholders equity and reserves. As an important enabler of delivering suitable returns to shareholders, the company aims to hold an effective capital structure which is aligned with a powerful credit rating and strong investment grade. Robust free cash flow generation, supported by regimented portfolio management has allowed the organisation to undertake capital management (Wesfarmers. 2015). Wesfarmers debt levels rose during the year but they are still low. The component of equity in the capital structure is quite higher as compared to debt. Woolworths Woolworths manages its capital structure with an aim to enhance long-term shareholder value by optimising its weighted average cost of capital whilst withholding flexibility to chase growth and take capital management initiatives. The company has a long-term debt financing policy that entails an inclination toward long-term debt from the capital markets for matching long-term assets; minimizing the risks of refinancing by staggering debt maturities and making use of diverse sources of debt; and, completely hedging foreign currency exposure and interest rate to form certainty around funding costs (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Despite this policy, the company is currently employing very low levels of debt in comparison to equity. Financial Ratios Ratios Wesfarmers Woolworths Current Ratio (Current Assets/Current Liabilities) 9,093/9,726 = .93 7,661/9,169 = .84 Debt-Equity Ratio (Long term debts/Total Equity 4,615/24,781 = .19 3,076/10,834 = .28 Interpretation: The current ratios of both the companies are below the industry standard. The above results of the current ratio show that both the organisations ought to adjust and enhance the value of their current assets because a number of current liabilities cannot be efficiently covered by their current assets. The ratio reveals how best the companies can bail out their short-term debts. The operational efficiencies of both the organisations are not satisfactory (Gibson, 2012). The Debt-Equity ratios of both the companies are also very below the ideal ratio of 2:1. This implies that the company is not adequately leveraged and relying on owners capital. Although the capital structure policies of both the companies are debt favouring, still neither is following it (Helfert, 2013). Companies Financing Structure and Financial Reporting Framework Ever since the worldwide recession of 2009, the Australian economy has witnessed various uncertainties and fluctuations. This financial crisis also ended up hurting the retail sector as domestic demand and customer confidence fell drastically, while unemployment increased from 4.8% in 2008 to 6.2% in 2009. The recent Eurozone crisis and the unhealthy dependence on the resource sector are another challenges in front of both Wesfarmers and Woolworths. Although there is no direct trade flows between Australia and Europe, but the damages are extended through China which is a major exporter of Australia (Abdelsamad, 2010). In light of these uncertain economic conditions, it is presumed that the use of higher equity financing is a protection against situations of loss. Woolworths recorded its biggest loss of AU$1.235 billion in the first quarter of FY16. In such situation, it is wise to use lesser debt and greater equity. However, Wesfarmers recorded high profit in the previous year and se ems to be doing great business. Consequently, the company can opt for debt financing because there would not be a problem of non-payment of dividends (Jenster and Hussey, 2011). Similarities and Differences between Wesfarmers and Woolworths The main similarities between the sources of finance and financial reporting framework of Wesfarmers and Woolworths are that both use greater equity in their capital structure and both follow the Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) framework for financial reporting. The main reasons behind these similarities include the nature of their industry and the resemblance of their scale of operations. Both the companies are operating in Australias retail sector and hence are subject to the same environmental changes. Moreover, the nature and scale of their operations are also similar. Besides this, the reason behind following the same financial reporting framework can also be attributed to operating in the same industry and hence being required to follow a generally accepted financial reporting framework. Differences can be seen in the composition of long-term debt and equity sources of finance of the two companies. While Wesfarmers has been conservative in their financing options and has relied only on corporate bonds and owners equity respectively, Woolworths has diversified its composition of both long-term debt and equity. The reason behind this may be attributed to the financing policies of the two companies and their comfort level with different sources. Summary The report highlighted the importance and drawbacks of obtaining finance from different sources i.e. short term and long term. Secondly, the report concludes that no company relies on only a single source of finance. They always use a blend of different sources to create an optimum financial leverage. Thirdly, despite having policies favouring long-term debt financing, both companies appeared to be reluctant in their use of debts. Lastly, irrespective of their size and reputation, both companies have poor operational efficiencies. Recommendations: Both companies are recommended to increase their debt financing. They should be wiser in selecting their creditors who have better credit policies. Both the companies are required to better manage their cash and liquidity. References Abdelsamad,M.H., 2010.A guide to capital expenditure analysis. New York: AMACOM. Ehrhardt, M. and Brigham, E., 2008. Corporate Finance: A Focused Approach. Cengage Learning. El-Firjani, E. R., Faraj, S. M. (2016). International Accounting Standards: Adoption, Implementation and Challenges. Economics and Political Implications of International Financial Reporting Standards, 231. Gibson, H. C., 2012. Financial Reporting and Analysis. Cengage Learning. Helfert,E.A., 2013.Techniques of financial analysis. Homewood, IL: Irwin. IBIS World. 2015. Wesfarmers Limted Premium Company Report Australia. [Online]. Available through: https://www.ibisworld.com.au/car/default.aspx?entid=69. [Accessed on 30 August 2016]. Jenster,P.V. and Hussey,D.E., 2011.Company analysis: Determining strategic capability. Chichester: Wiley. Kumar, A. and Francisco, M., 2005. Enterprise Size, Financing Patterns, and Credit Constraints in Brazil: Analysis of Data from the Investment Climate Assessment Survey. World Bank Publications. McArthur, T., 2013. Woolworths vs. Wesfarmers. [Online]. Available through: https://www.fool.com.au/2013/06/28/woolworths-vs-wesfarmers/. [Accessed on 30 August 2016]. Rigby, G., 2011. Types and Sources of Finance for Start-up and Growing Businesses: An Instant Guide. Harriman House Limited. Wesfarmers Resources. 2012. Wesfarmers Curragh Wins Top National Export Award. [Online]. Available through: https://www.wesresources.com.au/awards/awards-0. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Wesfarmers Sustainability Report 2012. 2012. [pdf]. Available through: https://www.wesfarmers.com.au/docs/default-source/reports/2012-sustainability-report.pdf?sfvrsn=0. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Wesfarmers. 2015. Annual Report 2015. [pdf]. Available through: https://www.asx.com.au/asxpdf/20150917/pdf/431d8fyj0rz8zy.pdf. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Who We Are? 2015. [Online]. Available through: https://www.wesfarmers.com.au/who-we-are/who-we-are. [Accessed on 30 August 2016]. Woolworths Limited. 2012. Woolworths Limited Awarded Disability Employment Award. [Online]. Available through: https://www.woolworthslimited.com.au/page/A_Great_Place_To_Work/Diversity/Woolworths_Limited_Awarded_Disability_Employment_Award/. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Woolworths Limited. 2015. Annual Report 2015. [pdf]. Available through: https://www.woolworthslimited.com.au/icms_docs/182381_Annual_Report_2015.pdf. [Accessed on 29 August 2016].

Napoleons Strategy and Tactics in His Invasion of Russia

Table of Contents Introduction Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics Conclusion Annotated Bibliography Introduction Napoleon was a great emperor of France with novel military strategies and tactics that enabled him to conquer his enemies and neighboring empires in a bid to expand his territory. His determination to win battles came from his confession that â€Å"there is no man more pusillanimous than I when I am planning a campaign.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics in His Invasion of Russia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More I purposely exaggerate all the dangers and all the calamities that the circumstances make possible†¦I am like an unmarried girl laboring with child† (Nafziger 1989, 23). He derived his military strategies and tactics from inherent fears that kept him on toes due to the imminent battles that revolved in the neighboring empires. The fea rs of losing a battle were constantly haunting him and this prompted him to draw novel strategies and tactics to overcome his enemies. During the great battle of Borodino when he attacked Russia, he demonstrated his military potential and ability to conquer ferocious enemies despite their military prowess. Critical analysis of Napoleon’s strategies and tactics show that his military approach to the decisive Russian battle was quite effective and is still invaluable in contemporary warfare. Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics Although Napoleon exercised his military powers during the early 19th century, his strategies and tactics are still applicable in the 21st century. According to Nafziger, â€Å"†¦his campaigns formed the basis of military education throughout the western world and a lot of military thinking is still influenced by the great Frenchman† (1989, 26). Since his military strategies and tactics have stood the test of time, which is about two centur ies now, and can still prove to be invaluable in this era of great technology, then it shows that his military skills were and still are quite effective. The effectiveness of military strategies and tactics depends on the ability of military commander to mobilize his armies and resources effectively. Napoleon applied time and space as the components of logistics that are necessary to win a decisive battle when he invaded Russia in 1812. By 1812, Napoleon had led France to become a mighty empire in Europe and he boasted the great achievement that he had made. Given the military status of the French Empire, Napoleon was poised to invade and conquer the independent states of Europe. To achieve his mission, â€Å"he managed to destroy the unity of purpose which had fed the coalitions against France for so long, as Austria, Russia and Prussia were now ready to fight each other as well as to fight France† (Tarle Viktorovich 1979, 356).Advertising Looking for term paper on his tory? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Napoleon knew that the unity of independent European states threatened and would eventually ruin his powerful empire and there would be no legacy left for him and his successor, so he had to destroy their unity before conquering Russia individually. Therefore, he employed the tactic of dividing and conquering. The unique strategy that Napoleon employed as a military commander is the use of military professionalism. Many of his successors regard Napoleon as premier general who conceptualized new strategies and tactics in terms of structure and composition of strong armies; impregnable in the face of threatening enemies. â€Å"Napoleon embodied the idea of the professional military leader, not gaining his position through familial or political connection, but earning it by distinguishing himself in combat† (Hoffman 2005, 122). In his military professionalism, Napoleon took two years in mak ing logistical planning to invade Russia, for he realized that decisive battles demanded proper logistics. Due to his logistical approach to battles, many generals have appreciated his approach and have applied his strategies and tactics, which have proved to give consistent successes in various wars. His presence during war made great difference, as he was indispensable in mobilization of resources and troops. Since Napoleon harbored many fears concerning his great empire, which he had managed to hold together through immense challenges, he wanted to guard it jealously without overlooking any possible threats albeit negligible. Napoleon argues that, â€Å"†¦when I am planning a campaign, I purposely exaggerate all the danger and all calamities that circumstances make possible† (Olszewski 2005, 32). This strategy gave him the advantage in case the potential threat of the enemy was underestimated. During the Russia invasion, Napoleon never at any instance overlooked or un derestimated the battle and consequences that arose, for in his logistical skills, he provided for the worst-case scenarios that were bound to occur in decisive battles like Russia invasion that cost the lives of many soldiers. Primary strategy of Napoleon was to identify the enemy. Identifying the location, composition, and structure of the enemies highlighted any possible threats and imminent calamities, which were very critical in determining whether to go ahead with the battle or not. If the battle was inevitable, then effective strategies and tactics were necessary to combat the enemy.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics in His Invasion of Russia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Hardeman (2006) notes that, â€Å"when facing a foe superior in numbers, the strategy of the central position was employed to split the enemy into separate parts, each of which could then be eliminated in turn by adroit maneuvering†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (175). With this strategy, though overwhelmed by the Russian armies, Napoleon armies managed to kill more of them as compared to their armies who died in the decisive battle. In this case, central position strategy proved useful in combating armies who were mightier while incurring minimal losses and injuries. Napoleon also utilized the strategy of Battalion Square and the tactic of outflanking his enemies. The Battalion Square consisted of an advance guard, which was to identify the enemy, right and left wings who acted as combating troops that marched within the range where they could offer emergency support to both advancing and reserved troops. At the rear end of the advancing army was a reserved troop, which provided extra support in case the advance troop retreated. Rainey argues that, â€Å"Napoleon could use a mere part of his force to tie down and occupy the attention of one enemy, then rapidly move his remaining force s to build up a local superiority against his enemies† (2006, 158). When Napoleon had built local superiority, he employed the tactic of flanking to combat the Russian armies who were too strong for him to conquer, but at least he demonstrated artful military combat. Conclusion Despite the astounding defeat that Napoleon met during his war against Russia, he demonstrated logistical strategies and tactics that many generals consider artful and worth acquiring in the current generation. Napoleon left military legacy as his successors credit him a military genius who made great impact in military reforms and shaped the approaches of decisive battles. His strategies and tactics still echo through 21st century since military academies recognize and approve them as effective and worth learning. Although Napoleon armies terribly suffered after invading Russia, this does not mean that their strategies were ineffective; only that the Russian armies were many, organized, and smarter. An notated Bibliography Hardeman, Richard. â€Å"General Logistics Paradigm: A study of the Logistics O Alexander, Napoleon and Sherman.† Air Force Logistics Management Agency 26, no. 13 (2006): 120-125.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Compares and contrasts logistical strategies and tactics, which great men like Napoleon, Alexander and Sherman employed in their military leadership to conquer battles. It underscores the fact that military logistics forms the central part of effective strategies in decisive battles. Hoffman, Smith. â€Å"Logistics of Waging War.† American Military Logistics Journal 12, no. 4 (2005): 172-189. Emphasizes the importance of military professionalism by applying logistical planning and consultation, in order to accommodate varied ideas that are paramount in assessing looming threats and dangers. Napoleon demonstrated professionalism in his logistical planning to invade Russia. Nafziger, George. Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics. Ancient Military Journal 58, no. 6 (1989): 17-31. Describes Napoleon strategies and tactics such as divisive diplomacy, military professionalism, logistics, structuring, and composition of the advancing armies. His strategies and tactics enabled him t o survive annihilation during the Russian Invasion. Olszewski, Zbigniew. â€Å"The Battle of Borodino, 1812.† Napoleon Military Conquest 16, no. 9 (2005): 24-47. Portrays Napoleon’s insecure and unassuming character for he never overlooked or underestimated the danger an enemy poses to his empire. It further outlines causes and subsequent implications of the Russia invasion by Napoleon. Rainey, James. Old Lessons New Thoughts. New York: DIANE Publishing, 2006. Explains how old strategies and tactics can be applied into the contemporary world. It also confirms that old lessons of Napoleon strategies and tactics are still invaluable in the current warfare. Tarle, Eugene, and Viktorovich Evgenil. Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia, 1812. New York: Octagon Books, 1979. Analyses strategies and tactics that Napoleon used to invade Russian and gives the strengths and weaknesses that led to eventual defeat of the Napoleon armies. This term paper on Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics in His Invasion of Russia was written and submitted by user Abbigail Mills to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Stepping back from my company to become a full-time novelist

Stepping back from my company to become a full-time novelist Stepping Back From My Company To Become a Full-Time Mystery Novelist JD Shiner enjoyed a twenty-eight-year career in the world of wireless data communications and now writes full-time. He is an expert on developing technologies, fiber transmission, firearms, fast cars, and thriller fiction. In this guest post, JD talks about his decision to take a break from the world of telecommunications in order to become a full-time novelist, and shares his advice for other  writers looking to do the same.A goal to write a specific number of words every  dayAlthough I was not able to follow his regimen to the letter, I did take his advice and set myself up on a modified version of it. For instance, Stephen King  states that he likes to write 3,000 words per day. I only wish I could write that many! My goal was 1,000 words per day when I started. Some days I did more, some days less.Self-publishing manuscript #27Never give up. Read a lot. Write a lot. Writing full-time has been extremely challenging. It has also been extremely rewarding. The Caves of Corihor is available on Amazon for Kindle and paperback.Are you a full-time writer? Are you thinking of becoming one? What has the journey of deciding to devote yourself to your craft full-time been like?  Leave your thoughts, experiences, or any questions for JD in the comments below.

Cape Lion Facts

Cape Lion Facts Name: Cape Lion; also known as Panthera leo melanochaitus Habitat: Plains of South Africa Historical Epoch: Late Pleistocene-Modern (500,000-100 years ago) Size and Weight: Up to seven feet long and 500 pounds Diet: Meat Distinguishing Characteristics: Extensive mane; black-tipped ears    About the Cape Lion Of all the recently extinct offshoots of the modern lion- the European Lion (Panthera leo europaea), the Barbary Lion (Panthera leo leo), and the American Lion (Panthera leo atrox)- the Cape Lion (Panthera leo melanochaitus) may have the least claim to subspecies status. The last known adult specimen of this big-maned lion was shot in South Africa in 1858, and a juvenile was captured by an explorer a couple of decades later (it didnt survive long out of the wild). The trouble is, the various extant subspecies of lions have a tendency to interbreed and mix up their genes, so it may yet turn out that Cape Lions were an isolated tribe of Transvaal Lions, the remnants of which can still be found in South Africa. The Cape Lion has the dubious honor of being one of the few big cats to have been hunted, rather than harassed, into extinction: most individuals were shot and killed by European settlers, rather than slowly starving due to habitat loss or poaching of their accustomed prey. For a while, in the early 2000s, it seemed that the Cape Lion might be de-extincted: a zoo director from South Africa discovered a population of big-maned lions in Russias Novosibirsk Zoo, and announced plans to perform genome  testing and (if the results were positive for fragments of Cape Lion DNA) attempt to re-breed the Cape Lion back into existence. Unfortunately, the zoo director died in 2010 and the Novosibirsk Zoo closed a couple of years later, leaving these putative Cape Lion descendants in limbo.

Commercial Law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Commercial Law - Research Paper Example On the other hand, there are cases in United Kingdom and Singapore that similarly dealt with your situation. In view to this, the following discussion will deal on these cases, and ostensible authority in the United Kingdom to further your knowledge on your current situation. Facts As an overview, Cheng-Han Tan cited that the agency relationship occurs when a principal allows an agent to represent itself, wherein the agent also agrees with the representation. There is a mutual agreement between the principal and the agent in the agency relationship, even in instances that either one disclaims or does not pronounce the mutual agreement. Also, the agent can be given authority, which is granted by the principal to enter within a contract with a third party. However, if the contract entered by the agent with the third party is not authorised by the principal, then the principal is not committed to the contract. Moreover, ostensible authority appears only in specific circumstances. Ostens ible authority comes in view when the agent surpasses the authority given by the principal, when the agent is no longer recognised as an agent of the principal, or when a person, never been recognised as the agent is then permitted to be the agent.1 In addition, Steyn LJ cited that ostensible authority or apparent authority is used in two main parts. ... However, in this case, Mr Pierce Hawthorne is not recognised as an agent but only as a Finance Manager of Blogon Breweries Pty Ltd. In this manner, we can cite the similarities of Mr Hawthorne to Chia in the Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken AB (Publ), Singapore Branch v Asia Pacific Breweries (Singapore) Pte Ltd and another appeal [2011] SGCA 22, where Chia was also a Finance Manager which has lesser authority when compared to the general manager. Also, Asia Breweries Limited (APBL) was a large corporation which has higher appointed officials. In the current case and the above statement may be supported with Armagas that ‘In the commonly encountered case, the ostensible authority is general in character, arising when the principal has placed the agent in a position, which in the outside world, is generally regarded as carrying authority to enter into transactions of the kind in question.3 In contrary to the First Energy (UK) Ltd v Hungarian International Bank, Ltd [1993] B.C.C. 53 3 (‘First Energy’), Mr Croft had negotiated and directly discussed with Mr Jamison who was the Senior Manager of Manchester office of HIB. He has ostensible authority because his position allowed him to ‘sanction large credit transactions together with another senior employee. Like many merchant banks and trading banks, HIB drew a distinction between internal authority to sanction a credit transaction and authority to sign a facility letter.’ As a support statement on the status of authority of Mr Hawthorne in the Blogon Breweries Pty Ltd, in the Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken AB (Publ), Singapore Branch v Asia Pacific Breweries (Singapore) Pte Ltd and another appeal [2011] SGCA 22, Chia as the Finance

Marketing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marketing - Assignment Example Westwood (2006) states that with innovation and marketing being driving force of most organizations, the brand manager does the following: †¢ Supports in driving innovation of new strategies of marketing in communication industries, †¢ Assists in leading the improvement of developing new products for the brand. Major duties in this role include new product ideation and exploratory, insight mining, presentation as well as development of results of marketing concept with senior management, developing packaging design, developing claims and interfacing with other departments of the organization throughout all stages of developing new products. †¢ The brand manager also partners with and motivates a wide-ranging cross-functional overall team of market R&D, research, finance, sales, package design, operations and engineering to enable breakthroughs along with game-changing advancement to the market. To accomplish this, the brand Manager requires highly motivated individuals with strong creative, analytical, interpersonal and problem-solving skills. †¢ Brand manager manages customer relations. With management of customer relations, he communicates with organizational customers during the many phases of the process of purchasing the products. †¢ The brand manager controls the marketing mix. Marketing mix entails all tangible fundamentals that enable marketing of products of the organization. These include organizational employees, facilities, the products themselves, the selling process, the cost strategy and process of advertising and promotion

Dove, the Brand to Beat Essay Example for Free

Dove, the Brand to Beat Essay Dove is a brand under the many products of Unilever. It was in the 1890s when William Hesketh Lever, founder of Lever Bros popularized cleanliness and hygiene with his introduction of the Sunlight Soap in Victorian England. The Sunlight Soap led the advocacy â€Å"to make cleanliness commonplace; to lessen work for women; to foster health and contribute to personal attractiveness, that life ay be more enjoyable and rewarding for the people who use our products†. (www.dove.com) For three centuries, Unilever has proven its success over economic booms, depressions, world wars and the changing lifestyle of its consumers as the world advanced through technology. Dove is the leading skin care product since 1957. It is clinically proven and has been noted to be good for dry sensitive skin which half the women in the world has. And since the 1980s, Dove has launched more supporting products to the soap bar such as moisturizing body wash, deodorants, body lotions, facial cleansers, shampoos and conditioners. All of these products are aimed to solve skin needs comprehensively bringing out the true inner beauty of women. Dove is boasts of its number one in the race of cleansing brands with double-digit growth data. Sales in over 80 countries are over â‚ ¬2.5 billion a year. They estimate that over 1 billion showers are done using Dove products each year in the US alone. The success is due to the brands keeping of its clinically proven promises and understanding of its real market. Studies show that only 12 % of women are very satisfied with their physical attractiveness. 2% of women articulate themselves as beautiful. 68% knows that media almost always sets unrealistic standards of beauty and the 75% hopes that media would better itself in portraying diversity in women’s physical attractiveness that includes size, shape and age. â€Å"Dove is actively trying to address the root of the problem of negative self-image. Dove has founded the Dove Self-Esteem Fund, which funds programs to raise self-esteem in girls and young women. In the US, it’s working through the Unilever Foundation to sponsor a partnership with Girl Scouts, called uniquely ME! It also supports the BodyTalk education program for schools in the UK and Canada.† (www.dove.com) The Dove Self-Esteem Fund has come along way since consumers saw that water alone was not enough to clean oneself. American consumers of the new millennium are more demanding than ever and value minded. Dove consumers pay a higher price for Dove due to its after sales value. The target market of Dove are the people who can afford to put a premium for added market values compared to cheaper alternatives such as Ivory. â€Å"According to Soap, Cosmetics, Chemical Specialties, aging baby-boomers were looking for milder, less irritating products. Soaps using vegetable-based fats, with no animal fats or animal testing, were also in demand. Other popular items included loofahs, oatmeal products, and chamomile leaves. In general, customers demanded performance and value in all their soap, shampoo, and detergent products, which were the driving factors behind the soap and detergents industry at the turn of the century.† (Thompsons, 2006) All these added value makes Dove cost more than the average bath product. Value leaders attempt to offer the best product at the cheapest price. These products cannot compare on quality and in the short term, competes for the value of each dollar. Ivory products advertise themselves on the price pitch that does not happen to Dove products. Each Dove product commercial does not mention price. this kind of advertising strategy may increase Ivory income by selling more quantity but soaps such as Dove and Dial remain successful as well by selling more expensive and keeping loyal customers at lesser volumes. â€Å"The bar soap market, which had grown at an average rate of about 4.1 percent annually in the early 1980s, entered the 1990s with a growth rate of about 4.9 percent. Beauty bars comprised the fastest growing segment of the bar soap market, with sales increasing at a rate of about 7 percent per year. Later in the decade, however, bar soap began to lose some ground to shower gels. In 1998, bar soap sales grew only 1.5 percent in value and slipped 4.5 percent in unit terms, while shower gel sales increased dramatically. However, even with their 18.1 sales gain in 1998, the shower gel market, with total sales of $450 million, remained slightly less than a third the size of the bar soap market, which totaled $1.4 billion in value in 1998.† (Thompsons, 2006) Dove has been successful in its campaign to increase and sustain loyal consumers due to its steadfast supporting of its timeless belief in their original product. Compared to the rest of the competition, Dove remained the soap that held on to its ‘added moisture’ selling point. From that, Dove has evolved and widened its strategies in cornering a wider and global market. For one, it’s campaign-promoting self-esteem in women cuts above the rest. The ‘campaign for real beauty’ ad that models larger than average smiling women in white underwear has sent advertisers of other soaps amok. The message of this ad is a statement against the usual advertisers that project the beautiful woman with impossibly physical proportions. This strategy of using controversy for advertising worked so much for Dove. â€Å"The women in these photos appear to love who they are and the way their bodies look. Sue Ontiveros of the Chicago Sun-Times says, Its the joy on their faces that I really like. Theres just so much happiness in their smiles that I feel as if these women are saying this is the real me and I like her. Boy, is that rare and just the message Id like females to get and embrace. Just because your booty cant fit into a size four doesnt mean youre not sexy. The joy and confidence of the Dove models allows them to look sexy without having to wear seductive facial expressions.† (www.campaignforealbeuty.com) The challenge that lies on the Dove self-esteem campaigns is to make sure that they do not get caught playing two sides. A teener realizes that the big women ad was sporting big tight thighs. Dove was getting the most of this because their thigh-tightening product was being launched. A critic also realized that letting women with underwear pose on camera was still diminishing respect for women even if they were all size large. The most significant challenge that advertisers faced was fueled by the growing global concern of consumers over environmental issues. Consumers demanded that products like Dove have to be manufactured and marketed using ‘earth-friendly’ products and processes without sacrificing quality. Dove’s dishwashing liquid leads their earth-friendly products. Using the dishwashing liquid leaves the hands moisturized, the plates squeaky clean and the rivers unpolluted Another important strategy for Dove products to stay in the lead is using technology to further their market reach. The website of Dove and its dealers are well-made and very user friendly. Buying online is very convenient. Using the internet as part of the marketing efforts, Dove can ensure the existence of its loyal customers who pays more to buy Dove soap. The prices below gathered from the websites show comparisons in prices of different common leading bath soaps. Dove fits in the middle of the price war as it is appreciated by the market as the soap that has more value compared to the usual everyday common soaps such as Dial and Coast but not too expensive like the signature and specialty soaps like Cetaphil or Neutrogena. Price Comparisons Dove   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.08 Dial   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   0.99 Ivory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1.89 Cetaphil   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4.09 Neutrogena   Ã‚  Ã‚   3.95 Coast   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1.20 Table 1. User ratings between Dove competitors Product name Pears Soap Imperial Leather Original Soap Palmolive Original Soap Bar Dove Extra Sensitive Cream Bar Lux Milk Honey Beauty Soap Oilatum Soap Bar Camay Classic- Toilet Soap Overall user rating: Recommended by 100% (13 Reviews) Recommended by 95% (19 Reviews) Recommended by 50% (6 Reviews) Recommended by 86% (28 Reviews) Recommended by 100% (1 Review) Recommended by 100% (2 Reviews) Recommended by 33% (3 Reviews) http://www.ciao.co.uk/product_comparison.php?Pid=1%2C10%2C10534%2C15372%2C5015455%2C5231365IDs%5B%5D=70462IDs%5B%5D=70445IDs%5B%5D=70457IDs%5B%5D=70440IDs%5B%5D=70450IDs%5B%5D=5628139IDs%5B%5D=70438Compare=Compare   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The table above shows user ratings from the ciao website. Recommendations between Dove competitors are tabulated. Though Dove Extra Sensitive Cream Bar had an 86% recommendation ratings, it had the most number of reviews totaling 28 as compared to Imperial leather Original Soap that seconded the list with 18 reviews, a far ten reviews short of Dove. This short sampling will show that there are more Dove users who connect to the internet as compared to the other products.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dove moves forward in its goal to build a strategic global ‘master’ brand. Backed by Unilever’s expertise in product branding, Dove with its good quality material for hygiene and beauty preservation will continue to focus on making their brand lead by promoting the value of their brand as against the price of the soap.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Dove was an instant hit, generating $55 million in sales its first six months, per Information Resources Inc. This year, sales climbed to $79 million for the 52 weeks ended April 22. Doves current market share stands at 4.7%, equal that of Procter and Gambles Old Spice. PGs Secret brands still collectively dominate the $1.6 billion category, but have been losing share to Dove. Total Secret sales were $229 million as of April 22, down 8% from $248 million for the year ended Sept. 10, 2000, per IRI.† (Ward, 2003)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have personally using Dove for the past ten years and have been more than twice tempted to try other brands. Though I did try out one or two other brands during such time, I always went back to using Dove because of its simplicity, truthfulness and mission to add social value to a common daily commodity. In a world where brand names are easily communicated with visuals only technology knows how far will go, Dove will remain as a trustworthy partner in my personal health care. References: U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Industry and Trade Out-look 99.   Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1999. U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Census Bureau. 1997 Economic Census. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1999. Van Arnum, Patricia. Consumer Product Majors Soak in a Renewed Outlook. Chemical Market Reporter, FR3-5. Ward, John. 2003. Does Market Share Really Apply to Apple? http://www.vectronicsappleworld.com/2003/opinion/0306.html www.ciao.com www.dove.com www.answers.com Doves extension into deodorant is a prime example of Unilevers long-term strategy to build a set of global master brands with new products and heavy marketing support. The launch was backed by more than $30 million in media spending, a level usually reserved for new brands. Dove marketers also wanted to develop a product specifically for women. While a number of existing brands are gender neutral (Ban, Sure) or targeted to men (Brut, Right Guard, Old Spice), not since PG introduced decades-old Secret has a manufacturer captured the collective attention of the female audience. Preferred language style: English(U.S.) †¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨Dove Soap (brand I want researched on)†¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨Think about a product you love, that you use all the time. In this first part of the assignment, your goal is to uncover as much research about the brand and it competitors as possible. †¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨You`ll want to know the history of the brand, the characteristics of the people who buy/use the brand, and everything else possible about it. But don`t forget to look into the competition. What are they doing right? What are they doing wrong? 5 pages 4 sources History Characteristics of its market Competition status What they are doing right? What they are doing wrong?

Physics of Soccer Essay -- Physics Research Papers Compare Football

Physics of Soccer I. Introduction Soccer is a sport that’s very challenging and during the course of this semester I’ve found physics can also be described as challenging. As far as I was concerned soccer and physics were both challenging and that was all they had in common, consequently upon researching them both this semester I found that I was wrong. For me this was nothing new because I’ve found that physics isn’t a subject that can be skimmed, but rather it has to be studied to the finest detail. Those small details if missed can make all your efforts worthless. Or on the positive side understanding those details can make your efforts worth it in the end. And in soccer if you understand the physics, which to most players would be considered as the small details, it pays off in the end. So really how does physics come into play with soccer? II. Motion and Soccer In our text we began our study of physics with motion because motion is a dominant characteristic of the Universe (Kirkpatrick, 21). In class we learned that speed is the distance traveled divided by the time taken, s=d/t. The definition of velocity is very close to that of speed except that direction of an object is also taken into account. Soccer is a sport that is all about motion and how to use movements most effectively. Speed and velocity are very important when it comes to motion because with out them there would be no motion. When playing soccer speed is essential to being a productive player. The game is fast paced and so the players must also be quick on their feet. Soccer players may not know that velocity is essential to being able to control their movements. But physics proves that both are essential to soccer. Speed and direction are b... ...volved. Soccer requires the use of physics principles such as motion, distance, momentum, angular momentum, friction, and all three of Newton’s Laws of motion. It is important to understand how physics works and affects us even when playing soccer. If players know how physics, the small details, affect them they will be able to control the ball and be efficient in calculating the speed and impact of an approaching opponent. Soccer is a challenging sport, but knowing how the physics around the game works makes improvement almost a guarantee. Works Cited Kirkpatrick, Larry D., Wheeler, Gerald F. Physic: A World View. Fourth ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001. Lange, Thomas L. â€Å"Soccer.† World Book Encyclopedia. 1996. â€Å"Physics of Soccer.† www.kent.k12.wa.us/staff/trobinso/physicpages/po2001/Soccer/ Index.html. Kent School District. 1995-2003.

Hegemonic masculinity

Hegemonic masculinity refers to the culturally normative ideal behaviours of males. This concept is based on the assumption that there is a hierarchy of masculine behaviour, suggesting that most societies encourage men to exemplify a dominant version of masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity is competitive and reflects an inclination for males to pursue domination over other males and subordinate females. Contrary to feminism, anti-femininity demonstrates a male's strong aversion and fear of being attributed to feminine characteristics.Men's identity strategies are stablished through their complicit or resistant stance to prescribed dominant masculine styles. Masculine characters are not given. Rather, a range of possible styles and personae emerge from the gender regimes found in different cultures and periods of time. It is undeniable that the definition of a man is the same today as it was a decade ago. Among the possible ways of being masculine, some become winning style and it is th is with which men must engage.This manufactured image of the male projected the appearance of an educated man, the talented athlete, hardworking good family man, with the ability to always provide. This has become the standard definition of manhood. The workplace became the arena that allowed manhood to be tested and, proving to other males. It provided the space for which men could prove opposite characteristic of women, although women were one of many vehicles available to males for the purpose of exhibiting levels of success.Through the gender identity model, demonstrated by Christopher T. Kilmartin, this paper will view the different dimensions of male and female gender roles. Moreover, through the work of Ann Ferguson, the crucial interpretation of gender performance nd transgressive acts will be fundamental in identifying how hegemonic masculinity is identified as anti-femininity. In all societies the obvious biological difference between men and women is used as a Justificati on for forcing them into different social roles which limit and shape their attitudes and behavior.That is to say, no society is content with the natural difference of sex, but each insists on adding to it a cultural difference of gender. The simple physical facts therefore always become associated with complex psychological qualities. It is not enough for a man to be male; he also has to appear masculine. A woman, in addition to being female, must also be feminine. However, once the contrast between men and women has been increased and accentuated in this fashion, it is usually taken as a further manifestation of biological differences, which confirm the need for different social roles.Thus, from an early age, boys are helped to acquire a masculinity that allows them to assume and maintain that position. By the same token, girls are taught to cultivate a submissive femininity. The resulting difference in the male and female character is then described as inborn and used to defend t he existing power rrangement. Only those who accept it are normal, and only they can expect to succeed. The male social role is designed to reward masculine men, while the female social role offers its relative advantages only to feminine women.Gender identity is ultimately derived from both chromosomal makeup and physical appearance, but this does not mean that psychosocial influences are missing. Socialization, or the process whereby a child learns the norms and roles that society nas created tor his or her gender, plays a significant role in the establishment of her or his sense of emaleness or maleness. If a child learns she is a female and is raised as a female, the child believes she is female; if told he is a male and raised as a male, the child believes he is male.Beginning at birth, most parents treat their children according to the child's gender as determined by the appearance of their genitals. Parents even handle their baby girls less aggressively than their baby boys. Children quickly develop a clear understanding that they are either female or male, as well as a strong desire to adopt gender-appropriate mannerisms and behaviors. This normally occurs ithin two years, according to many authorities. In short, biology sets the stage, but children's interactions with the social environment actually determine the nature of gender identity. The gender identity model also carries the assumption that, ‘being like a woman' is a negative outcome in personality development† (Kilmartin, 39). Early psychoanalytic theorists were quick in assuming that poor motherhood was the primary drawback in a male child being overly feminine. Other Justifications point to an absent father who was away often or very distant from his children. The feminine male has been demonstrated as a scary unwanted image. A teenage boy is not supposed to cry during a romantic movie.If a young boy associates with too many feminine things, he may end up identifying more with wo men than with men. All females are not necessarily feminine and all males are not necessarily masculine. We are never provided with a definitive answer to what constitutes masculinity, but instead we are provided with details and examples of how an why masculinity cannot be reduced to the male body and its effects, asserting as well that dominant asculinity relies on alternate masculinities, such as female masculinity.Masculinity in this society inevitably conjures up notions of power, legitimacy and privilege, a fact which closely ties the idea of masculinity to conceptions of race gender, sexuality and class, yet this power is only recognizable in opposition where masculinity only become legible as masculinity only in certain social settings. Ann Ferguson highlights three strategies in which males display masculinity. Heterosexual power; â€Å"always marked as a male† (Ferguson, 81). This refers to the social theory that men ave unearned advantages or rights granted to them solely on the basis of their sex, but usually denied to women.In societies with male privilege, men are afforded social, economic, and political benefits because they are male. Second involves role reversal, which is described by Ferguson as the disruption of the normal direction of the flow of power. Girls are outperforming boys at every level of education; women are overtaking men in the workplace in both status and pay. More men are becoming househusbands. Girls are becoming more assertive and aggressive whilst boys are becoming more feminine. Females are graceful in becoming the dominant gender. Third, Ferguson identifies violence as a strategy in displaying masculinity.This displays the conflict between authority and masculinity. These masculine strategies reassert the notion that gender is a performance. Contrary to feminine behavior, males are at constant battle to upkeep the masculine image. C. J. Pascoe's representation of the anti-feminine male exemplified the anxiety mal es have of being labeled as feminine. She implied through her research that it is acceptable to be gay, under the conditions that you are masculine as well. Her rendition ot the tag discourse argues that labeling other's as a tag is central to boys' joking relationships.Joking about the â€Å"fag† both strengthens relationships among boys and soothes their social anxiety. The high school boys from Pascoe's study bond by throwing the fag nickname at one another where boys call their peers fag for a number of reasons, such as being incompetent, showing emotion, caring about appearances, dancing or expressing interest in other guys, all these trait subjective to the female identity. Another aspect of fag discourse is the enactment of the fag, in hich high school boys would act out exaggerated femininity or pretend to be sexually attracted to men.Through this behavior, boys reminded themselves and each other that at any moment they could become fags if they were not sufficiently masculine† (Pascoe, 60). The notion of compulsive heterosexuality is based on the idea that one's sexuality is not chosen, but rather forced through society. This term does not refer to a sexual orientation. Rather, it refers to a variety of behaviors, social interactions, and institutional structures. This is a good umbrella term for a lot of different physical, erbal, and emotional actions.Pascoe describes how male students exhibit compulsive heterosexuality verbally when referring to their sexual interests. It is all about â€Å"the ability to exercise mastery and dominance literally and figuratively over girls' bodies† (Pascoe, 78). Whether a boy is objectifying, privately or publicly, a woman's body directly at her or in the company of other men/boys, these are forms of compulsive heterosexuality. Pascoe examines how masculinity is present in not only in media, sexual practices, and desire but also in politics.This leads to how it also ffects economics and gender i nequality in both physical and emotion ways. It can be seen in television shows, clothing ads, or unequal pay wages between men and women. In terms of anti femininity, hegemonic masculinity is the display of behaviors opposite to those deemed feminine. A hegemonic male will allow himself to suppress feelings of emotion and vulnerability to qualify as a manly man. Through the works of Pascoe, Ferguson and Kilmartin we have understood that the social construction of a male is what defines hegemonic masculinity rather than biological features.The egemonic male is seen as anti-feminine because of the social pressures he is presented. A male's fear of being labeled as feminine is primary in defining hegemonic masculinity as anti-femininity. The competitive male who seeks dominance over others and especially females, demonstrates the strong aversion a male has over becoming a subordinate himself. Through Kilmartin's gender identity model, it was argued that being like a woman is negative in any way, shape or form. Ann Ferguson's three strategies argue that gender is a performance and one that must be up kept through constant displays of power.Pascoe's fag discourse and ompulsive heterosexuality concepts present the anti-feminine in males through name-calling and, again, displays of dominance.

Learning and Memory.An introduction to theories of learning Essay

Learning and Memory Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cleaning the room is the target behaviour in Bobby’s case. Mr. Kelly tries to keep on reminding his eight year old child to clean his room but it is always in vain. Since Mr. Kelly needs help in increasing the frequency of his child cleaning his room it could be assumed that bobby is trained and knows how to clean his room. The possible reason as to why he keeps on refraining from this task is however unclear.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Operant conditioning is a method of learning that incorporates acquisition of behaviour and facing the consequences of the behaviour. In this type of learning rewards are given to the learner either to encourage or discourage future repetition of the same behaviour (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Operant conditioning can be used to encourage Bobby in cleaning up his room. Through the various components of operant conditioning Mr. Kelly can apply to encourage Bobby clean his room. Operant conditioning has two major concepts, reinforcement and punishment, which could be used in different ways to encourage bobby to clean his room.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reinforcement involves using reward that would otherwise increase the chances of bobby cleaning his room more often. Mr. Kelly could use various rewards such as giving bobby time to watch T.V, buying little gifts that are issued each time bobby cleans his room. Such motivating factors will encourage bobby to clean up his room. Reinforcement is of two types, positive and negative reinforcement, both ways can be capitalised in changing the behaviour of bobby. In positive reinforcement for instance Mr. Kelly needs to look for items such as toys or bars of chocolate, preferably Mr. Kelly could choose some of the items bobby loves most and use them to reward bobby after cleaning the room.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Continuous use of negative reinforcement over a long period of time would lead to Bobby developing an attitude towards cleaning his room. Thus positive reinforcement could be applied. For reinforcement to be effective both method should be used concurrently. Fixed ratio schedule and variable ratio schedules can be used to implement and encourage bobby to always clean the room. Fixed ratio schedule will always reward bobby after a number of times he has cleaned the room. This method will give immediate positive responses from bobby but would be consuming for Mr. Kelly. Variable ratio schedule would award bobby after irregular intervals of response from him. This can be very effective to reinforce Bobby to clean the room because the reinforcement can come all through the first week and make the reluctance of cleaning the house an extinct behaviour.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I will apply the operant conditioning to account for Jackie’s development of the behaviour of phobia towards dogs. This is because the operant conditioning shows or explains why the organisms will acquire learned behaviour that they exhibit. The vital focus of operant conditioning is by use of reinforcements as punishments or reward so as to increase or decrease the likelihood of occurrence or repetition of certain behaviour (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). In the case of Jackie, she received a negative reinforcement from the dog bite and hence the phobia towards dogs development. Also the stitches and the time that she spent on medication made her develop the negative attitude towards dogs. This is because, in operant conditioning, it is clear that continued use of negative reinforcement will lead to the victim developing an attitude towards that object or behaviour.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some of the behaviour modification that could be designed to help Jackie to overturn the phobia that she has with dogs could be: Jackie could first of all spend time with her spouse with a company the trained dogs. This will help Jackie to see that dogs were not wild and they always do not bite any time you had an encounter with them. This will somehow help her reverse the phobia she had towards dogs and also help her see the positive side of the dogs. She should also be allowed to spend time with the trained dogs with the dogs being guided by the trainer to remain lively, obedient and helpful to Jackie. This will act as a positive reinforcement towards Jackie’s behaviour. She will slowly by slowly start liking dogs and hence they will have a happy life with her partner thereafter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are two main principles of operant conditioning that are evident in the case of Emma. First by the parents trying to offer Emma some kind of reward, they are trying to positively reinforce the behaviour of cleaning her room and toys through the principle of positive reinforcement. Also through putting her out, they are applying the principle of positive punishment by trying to add something bad so that she cannot repeat the same mistake.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Operant conditioning theory could be applied in this case to correct Emma’s behaviour through application of the four main principles of operant conditioning. The parents could apply the principle of negative punishment which is to take something good away so as to decrease certain behaviour. Through application of this principle, they could cut away buying of toys to Emma so that she could be reinforced to clean the room. Also through negative reinforcement principle, which is taking something bad so as to reinforce behaviour could be applied by Emma’s parents. They could stop putting her in time any time that she cleans her room so that she can be reinforced to always clean her room and toys.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Extinction of behaviour in operant conditioning theory can be defined as the disappearance of previously learned behaviour if the behaviour is not reinforced (Hunt et al, 2008). As we have earlier said, reinforcement is the necessity for learning and in which certain behaviour grows. It is either a means to encourage or discourage certain behaviour (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). For instance, the Emma is conditioned to the behaviour that when she screams hard and through the toys away, her parents will collect them and clean them up for her. If the parents stopped this behaviour, Emma could not adopt this behaviour because it will lack reinforcement and slowly it will cease and become extinct. References Hunt, Elgin F. and Colander, David C. (2008). Social Science, An Introduction to the Study of Society. Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle; River, NJ: Pearson. Staddon, J. E. R., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 115-44. Source document

Jianqiao RRR 1 Essay

Jianqiao RRR 1 Essay Jianqiao RRR 1 Essay Jianqiao (Irons) Ye Christy Krumm AE 20C / Reading Responsible #1 Revision #1 19 November 2014 In the article â€Å"A Visit To Grandmother† which is written by William Melvin Kelley, the author writes that Mr. Charles Dunsford is jealous of his brother GL Dunsford when their mother is telling the anecdote which was about the horse, GL and herself. During dinner, he complains that his mother often loves GL more than him. The astonished old lady tries to justify her behavior by arguing â€Å"I did not love any one of you more than any other!† (166). However, Charles does not forgive her at all and rushes away. In this article, it is easy to tell that the only similarity between Charles and GL is that they lived together until Charles was fifteen. When they were living side by side, Charles found that his mother always spent much time with GL and paid little mind to him. Thus, he left for Knoxville. Thirty years later, while Charles is dining with his family, the old lady is still talking about the anecdote of GL and she even asks Charles â€Å"You remembered how t ired we were, Charles?† (165) The old lady remembers most of the times playing with GL but she totally forgets that Charles is not present until he says â€Å"I wasn’t here at the time† (165) and â€Å"I left here in June of that year† (165). Although Charles’ mother says that she loves all her children even though she may treat them differently, I think that she loves GL more than Charles because despite the fact that Charles is much more

Standard English Definition and Examples

Standard English Definition and Examples Standard English is a controversial term for a form of the English language that is written and spoken by educated users. Abbreviation: SE. Also known as  Standard Written English (SWE). According to Tom McArthur in The Oxford Companion to the English Language (1992), the term Standard English resists easy definition but is used as if most educated people nonetheless know precisely what it refers to. Examples and Observations The term Standard English refers to both an actual variety of language and an idealized norm of English acceptable in many social situations. As a language variety, Standard English is the language used in most public discourse and in the regular operation of American social institutions. The news media, the government, the legal profession, and the teachers in our schools and universities all view Standard English as their proper mode of communication, primarily in expository and argumentative writing, but also in public speaking.Standard English is thus different from what is normally thought of as speech in that Standard English must be taught, whereas children learn to speak naturally without being taught.(The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style. Houghton Mifflin, 2005We need to know Standard English, but we need to know it critically, analytically, and in the context of language history. We also need to understand the regularity of non-standard variants. If w e approach good and bad grammar in this way, the study of language will be a liberating factor- not merely freeing learners from socially stigmatized usage by replacing that usage with new linguistic manners, but educating people in what language and linguistic manners are all about.(Edwin L. Battistella, Bad Language: Are Some Words Better Than Others? Oxford University Press, 2005 Tacit Conventions of Usage [T]he conventions of linguistic usage are tacit. The rules of standard English are not legislated by a tribunal but emerge as an implicit consensus within a virtual community of writers, readers, and editors. That consensus can change over time in a process as unplanned and uncontrollable as the vagaries of fashion. No official ever decided that respectable men and women were permitted to doff their hats and gloves in the 1960s or to get pierced and tattooed in the 1990s- nor could any authority with powers short of Mao Zedong have stopped these changes. In a similar manner, centuries of respectable writers have shrugged off long-forgotten edicts by self-appointed guardians of the language, from Jonathan Swift’s denunciation of banter, mob, and sham to Strunk and White’s disparaging of to personalize, to contact, and six people (as opposed to six persons).(Steven Pinker, False Fronts in the Language Wars. Slate, May 31, 2012 The Convenience of Standard English [Standard English is that] particular variety of English which is regarded by educated people as appropriate for most types of public  discourse, including most broadcasting, almost all publication, and virtually all conversation with anyone other than intimates... Standard English is not entirely uniform around the globe: for example, American users of standard English say the first floor and Ive just gotten a letter and write center and color, while British users say ground floor and Ive just got a letter and write centre and colour. But these regional differences are few in comparison with the very high degree of agreement about which forms should count as standard. Nevertheless, standard English, like all living languages, changes over time...It is important to realize that standard English is in no way intrinsically superior to any other variety of English: in particular, it is not more logical, more grammatical, or more expressive. It is, at the bottom, a convenience: the use of a single agreed standard form, learned by speakers everywhere, minimizes uncertainty, confusion, misunderstanding, and communicative difficulty generally.(R.L. Trask, Dictionary of English Grammar. Penguin, 2000 Origins of Standard English By far the most influential factor in the rise of  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Standard English was the importance of London as the capital of England...London English took as well as gave. It began as a Southern and ended as a Midland dialect. By the 15th century, there had come to prevail in the East Midlands a fairly uniform dialect, and the language of London agrees in all important respects with it. We can hardly doubt that the importance of the eastern counties...is largely responsible for this change. Even such Northern characteristics as are found in the standard speech seem to have entered by way of these counties. The history of Standard English is almost a history of London English. (Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002)Half-way through the 17th century, the lexicographer Thomas Blount declares that the Babel of the vernacular made England a self-stranger nation- one growing alien to itself through this diversity of available forms . He dedicates his dictionary of 1656 to the cause of having English Englished. Arguably, in this context, it is not the rise of a standard variety of language, but a new awareness of dialect and variability of discourse- the self-stranger English of the Renaissance- that best defines the linguistic culture of early modern England. (Paula Blank, The Babel of Renaissance English. The Oxford History of English, ed. by Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford University Press, 2006 Varieties of Standard English [T]here is no such thing (at present) as a Standard English which is not British or American or Australian, etc. There is no International Standard (yet), in the sense that publishers cannot currently aim at a standard which is not locally bound.(Gunnel Melchers and Philip Shaw, World Englishes: An Introduction. Arnold, 2003)

Stereotypes and fantasies about the US South have been a major theme Essay

Stereotypes and fantasies about the US South have been a major theme in the development of US popular music - Essay Example The following analysis will seek to discuss and analyze the manner by which this particular song helps the listener to come to an appreciation and understanding of what the desire of the working-class black woman would be, a promotion and understanding of the idea that a greater self-determination was possible and therefore sees, an understanding and appreciation for a renewed emphasis upon feminism and a focus upon how the freedom and equality movement had grown from merely something that sought parity with whites to something that sought parity between the sexes. As such it is the hope of this author that this particular analysis can not only help to confirm some of statements with regards to the blues of the 1920s but also offer an alternative level of understanding with respect to the way in which this music was represented and presented within the particular time in question. The ultimate meaning and understanding that the song implies is with regards to a deadbeat husband who h as run off on his wife and lives a life on his own for over a year’s time. In returning, the woman of the house, exercising a degree of power and self determinism, recalled the way in which she answers the door and ultimately tells him to leave and not bother her anymore as she has started her own life. This is of course evident of a great degree of freedom, self empowerment, and self-determination that might not likely have been evidenced within another era. The songwriter recounts the way in which even though he asks for permission to come in and start a life together again, the woman refuses and states that she does not need his laundry, his rent, or his ones and twos (likely referring to any further children from this individual). In an era gone by, it would have been the requirement of the woman to wait for her husband, regardless of his indiscretions, and necessarily forgive these at such a time that he gained to reappear in her life. However, as was represented in this blues music of the 1920s, this working-class black woman was not willing to accept this as an alternative to the freedom and self-determination that she had already been experiencing within the past months. In addition to Hazel Carby’s understanding of the way in which the concerns and cares of the black working-class woman were represented within the blues of the 1920s, a very clear level of feminism and an understanding of greater freedom and equality was represented within songs such as â€Å"Sam Jones Blues†, the songwriter ultimately less the listener be aware of the fact that Mrs. Wilson not only refuses Sam Jones entry into her house, she has also learned how to leverage the legal system , filed and received proper divorce papers, and has her own employment; thereby making the existence of a man in her life ultimately superfluous (James 173). From the information that is thus far been provided, the reader can come to a clear understanding of the fact that the b lues of this particular era, as understood through the lens of â€Å"Sam Jones Blues† not only represented a shift away from the musical integration and utilization that had been leveraged in previous eras, it also dealt with a unique subject matter that was not formally discussed within songs prior to this era. Although infidelity and issues of adultery have long been topics of the human condition, and analysis of these from an empowered black woman’s perspective and the means through which she has the ability, will, money, and self

Hewlett Packard takes project management learning to a higher level Term Paper

Hewlett Packard takes project management learning to a higher level - Term Paper Example ency, productivity and profitability of their firm was being negatively impacted by the lack of direct training they provided to middle management; specifically project managers. Accordingly, the firm endeavored to change by providing a visionary and optimistic training program that proved to be the envy of many firms. As a means of understanding and appreciating the approach that Hewlett Packard engaged in, with respect to an overarching project management and training program, the following analysis will seek to draw inference with respect to the key inputs of the deliverables for the project in question, how some of the challenges to the project management process may be defined, and the opinion of this analysis with respect to the quality of the project management that was exhibited within the case in question and why. The key inputs that provided the mechanism for change with regard to the case in question are contingent upon the desire and wherewithal to change, investment in training, and promoting core concepts of interaction and business development. Within such a rubric, HP was focused on achieving a competitive advantage over their rivals by focusing on the quality of the training process and ensuring that the inputs – ability to change, investment in training, and promoting core concepts of interaction and business development – would serve as the platform through which a greater level of IT provision within the firm and a higher level of productivity. Of all the inputs, the investment in time and money that such a program required was immense. As such, many individuals outside HP would have been hesitant to commit such a high level of resources on a thus far unproven program that was intended to maximize future project organization and profitability within the firm. Another relevant input that must be discussed is with regard to the training that took place prior to the program being offered at all. Rather than bringing in outside

Does Harry Summers understand Clausewitz Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Does Harry Summers understand Clausewitz - Essay Example The end of World War II saw the rise of nuclear threat and we started hearing terms such as â€Å"limited war† and theory â€Å"analysis†. War has now become just a gimmick and is mainly won by theatrics. The concept of victory has been entirely modified. War and military are now just the servants of an executive. Patriotism and heroism are mere drugs now that are injected into the minds of naà ¯ve and oblivious people to make them do things that no man would choose to do otherwise. According to Summers (and Clausewitz) the system of monarchy still exists. It has just been transformed into something better looking. What conceals it is media tactics and gimmicks. Part II of this study reveals that wars can be won even in most adverse circumstances as long as the political and military objectives are kept in harmony. In the Vietnam War, American people were angry because a war was waged in their name but without their permission. Moreover, the military heads kept making all the decisions of war without any consultation and without any real support. And as a result, the convoluted policies lead them to complete chaos. US army considered the guerillas of war as the main enemy when they were in fact just a proxy force which was very well used by the

Interpersonal Deception Theory: Example Case

Interpersonal Deception Theory: Example Case In the daily life, we are always having social interactions and communicate with people.  Therefore, we will be faced through a variety of conditions or circumstances faced by either consciously or unconsciously which has involved ourselves into what is called Interception Deception Theory which has been stated by David Buller and Judee Burgoon. Interpersonal Deception Theory means is trying to explain how is the individual make the interactions with the real lie or perceived in the conscious or unconscious while they are involving in the face to face communication. Communication would not be static because it has been influenced by not only ones goals itself, but it is also by how the interaction context. By sending the message and it was affected by the conduct and the message of receiver and vice versa. Furthermore, deception is different from the truth communication which means that intentional fraud requires more significant cognitive resources than the truthful communication, does the sender involved in the falsification creates a fiction, concealment hides a secret or equivocation dodges the issues. Buller and Burgoon define as a message knowingly transmitted by a sender to foster a false belief or conclusion by the receiver. (Buller and Burgoon, 1996: 203-242) The processes to establish a good relationship with the boyfriend, friends, family, leaders or lecturers are not always smooth as envisaged.  Therefore, we must be smart to choose the way for good relation which has been existed previously. Every person in this world will have a lied to a particular purpose, which namely was the target, maintaining their goals or saving their face themselves. Deception needs an effort and hard work. The liar has to be continued to deal with its task which was very complex in managing their lie strategy. If the lie have been too much, so there will be a leaking and this leak will affected to the non-verbal behavior. Lie will also create feelings of guilt and doubt which will be seen from the actions or behavior. The succession of the lie is also depends on the suspicion of the respondent. The respondent usually has the feelings that can be easily detected by the liar. The suspicion will be in the fact and fiction. According to Buller and Burgoon (1996:203-242), Communication senders attempt to manipulate messages so as to be untruthful, which may cause them apprehension concerning their false communication being detected.  Simultaneously, communication receivers try to unveil or detect the validity of that information, causing suspicion about whether or not the sender is being deceitful. (Buller, D.B., and Burgoon, J.K. (1996), Interpersonal deception theory Communication Theory, 19966:203-242) Interpersonal Deception Theory means that there are times when someone must lie. Lying is a manipulation of information, but someone who wants to lie should have a strategy which could be falsification, concealment and equivocation. According to Buller and Burgoon (1996:203-242), there are three aspects of deceptive messages which are: The central deceptive message, which is usually verbal. Ancillary message, which includes both verbal and nonverbal aspects of communication that often reveals the truthfulness of a particular message.   Inadvertent behaviors which are mostly nonverbal and help to point out the deceit of the sender through a term called leakage. (Buller, D.B., and Burgoon, J.K. (1996), Interpersonal deception theory. Communication Theory, 6, 203-242) Example case: There is a university student who has been in a relationship with her boyfriend since 5 years ago, and there is unexpected thing happens. The mother of her boyfriend had been in the verdict of a breast cancer by doctor when she had her healthy check up. Since the girl has been in a relationship for five years, she is so closed with her boyfriends family. She has been treating by her boyfriends parents like their own daughter, because they have their closed relationship so she is calling his boyfriends parents as Mom and Dad. The girl is taking care of her boyfriends mother because of their relationship and also because her boyfriend is the only child in the family so there was not any person who can take care of her mother except the girl. They went to Singapore continually to do the surgery and chemotherapy treatment and radiotherapy treatment. The girl always accompanies them to do all the things and helping them to go through the healing process. And since the girl is also a student in a university and she still having the class at that time, so sometimes she have to skipped the class in order to accompany her boyfriends mother and she told to her lecturers that her mother is having a breast cancer and she have to go to Singapore quite often to accompany her and the lecturers give their permission to her. And later on, the lecturers found out from the girl classmates or gossip that the girl is not telling the truth about the mother who was the girl says as her mom, it is not her biologic mother but her boyfriends mother. The girl says that is because she is calling her boy friends mother as my mom. In this case, it can be considered as interpersonal deception based on the three aspects of deceptive messages from Buller and Burgoon. There are two aspects that related with the case above which are: The central deceptive message, which is usually verbal means that there are miss communication between the girl and the lecturer. It has been misunderstood verbal communication in which she said her mom who according to her is the mother of the boyfriend who was she considered as her own mother that maybe it could be misunderstood by the lecturer who thinks that her mom was to show the biological mother  of this girl. So, there is a miscommunication and misunderstanding via verbal communication way between the girl and the lecturer which can be considered as interpersonal deception by the lecturer. And the other aspects is Ancillary message, which includes both verbal and nonverbal aspects of communication that often reveals the truthfulness of a particular message which means that v erbally, the girl said she is going to accompany her mom to have her medical treatment and care.  This girl is no intention to defraud or lie to the teacher by saying her mom who is the mother of her boyfriends mother as her own mother due to their close relationship between the girl and her boyfriends mother is already very close which causing the girl has been considered as child  of their own.  Furthermore, by the non verbal, the girl also gave evidence in the form of letters from the doctors who assume to write which it was true that the girl is coming to accompany her mother to having the medical treatment and medical care. Theoretical Perspective Interpersonal deception theory is a fraud which based on theoretical views of interpersonal communication.   Therefore, Buller and Burgoon assume that fraud is as an interactive process between sender and receiver. In contrast with previous studies of deception that focused on the sender and receiver individually, Interpersonal deception theory focuses on the dyadic, relational and dialogic nature of deceptive communication. The behaviors between the sender and receiver are dynamic, multifunctional, multidimensional and multimodal. (Buller and Burgoon, 1998) Dyadic communication  refers to communication between two people. A dyad is a group of two people between whom messages are sent and received. Relational communication refers to communication in which meaning is created by two people simultaneously filling the roles of both sender and receiver. Dialogic  activity refers to the active communicative language of the sender and receiver, each relying upon the other within the exchange. MANIPULATING INFORMATION: THE LANGUAGE AND LOOK OF LIARS Basically deception is hoax fraud information. Liars always use the falsification, concealment or equivocation to complete their lie. Fraud is usually done on the basis of motive to deceive. Usually a person who will commit a fraud has at least three goals which is to complete a certain task, to establish or maintain the relationships with the respondents, and to save their face or maintain the image of one or both parties. In our daily life, we always communicate to each other. The way that every individual communicate is different. The language that used was also different in accordance with the objectives to be achieved, so that sometimes some people think that the need to commit fraud. Based on Buller and Burgoon, they assume that the motivation and interpersonal identity fraud inherent in stimulating the text over the mark as a less honest communication. Although sometimes the respondents did not know or see any signs of deception, in theory there are four characteristics that reflect the strategic objectives, which are: Uncertainty and vagueness If the girl does not want the lecturer know about the truth that her mom who is not the girl biological mother, the girl will probably to keep the answer secretly and shortly. No immediacy, reticence and withdrawal If the lecturer suddenly say that the mother who the girl was accompany and taking care for the medical treatment and medical care is not her biological mother, the girl will probably wish that it is better that she do not tell anything to her friends. The girl might silent to hear the lecturer opinion about her statement. Disassociation The girl will give the explanation to the lecturer about the miscommunication and misunderstanding from the word her mom that the girl stated. The girl has been treating by her boyfriends parents like their own daughter, because they have their closed relationship so she is calling his boyfriends parents as Mom and Dad. Image-and relationship-protecting behaviour When the people want to do a fraud, they usually will acknowledge the existence of non-verbal leakage which will provide the signs that the words they communicate are lie. Based on Buller and Burgoon, It seems that smile might be a simple all-purpose strategy applies to cover lies.   (Buller and Burgoon, Interpersonal Deception Theory, 1996) People who want to know a clear way to separate the truth from the fraud can be through the four strategic signs that will give the right way to get honesty.  In the world of communication, it is not easy because almost all communication is intentional, goal directed, and conscious. Buller and Burgoon adopt the term leakage to refer to unconscious nonverbal cues that signal an internal state. IDTs explanations of interpersonal deception depend on the situation in which interaction occurs and the relationship between the sender and receiver. Over half of their 18 propositions involve the important distinction between strategic and nonstrategic activity. (Buller and Burgoon, 1996) Sender and receiver cognitions and behaviours vary systematically as deceptive communication contexts vary in (a) access to social cues, (b) immediacy, (c) relational engagement, (d) conversational demands, and (e) spontaneity. During deceptive interchanges, sender and receiver cognitions and behaviours vary systematically as relationships vary in (a) relational familiarity (including informational and behavioural familiarity) and (b) relational valence. Individual communicators also approach deceptive exchanges with their own set of pre-interaction factors, such as expectancies, knowledge, goals or intentions, and behavioural repertoires that reflect their communication competence. IDT posits that such factors influence the deceptive exchange. Compared with truth tellers, deceivers (a) engage in greater strategic activity designed to manage information, behaviour, and image and (b) display more nonstrategic arousal cues, negative and dampened affect, non-involvement and performance decrements. Context interactivity moderates initial deception displays such that deception in increasingly interactive contexts results in (a) greater strategic activity (information, behaviour, and image management) and (b) reduced nonstrategic activity (arousal, negative or dampened affect, and performance decrements) over time relative to non-interactive contexts. Sender and receiver initial expectations for honesty are positively related to degree of context interactivity and positivity of relationship between sender and receiver. Deceivers initial detection apprehension and associated strategic activity are inversely related to expectations for honesty (which are themselves a function of context interactivity and relationship positivity). Goals and motivations moderate strategic and nonstrategic behaviour displays. As receivers informational, behavioural, and relational familiarity increase, deceivers not only (a) experience more detection apprehension and (b) exhibit more strategic information, behaviour, and image management but also (c) more nonstrategic leakage behaviour. Skilled deceivers appear more believable because they make more strategic moves and display less leakage than unskilled deceivers. Initial and ongoing receiver judgments of sender credibility are positively related to (a) receiver truth biases, (b) context interactivity, (c) and sender encoding skills; they are inversely related to (d) deviations of sender communication from expected patterns. Initial and ongoing detection accuracy are inversely related to (a) receiver truth biases, (b) context interactivity, (c) and sender encoding skills; they are positively related to (d) informational and behavioural familiarity, (e) receiver decoding skills, and (f) deviations of sender communication from expected patterns. Receiver suspicion is manifested through a combination of strategic and nonstrategic behaviour. Senders perceive suspicion when it is present. Suspicion (perceived or actual) increases senders (a) strategic and (b) nonstrategic behaviour Deception and suspicion displays change over time. Reciprocity is the predominant interaction adaptation pattern between senders and receivers during interpersonal deception. Receiver detection accuracy, bias, and judgments of sender credibility following an interaction are a function of (a) terminal receiver cognitions (suspicion, truth biases), (b) receiver decoding skill, and (c) terminal sender behavioural displays. Sender perceived deception success is a function of (a) terminal sender cognitions (perceived suspicion) and (b) terminal receiver behavioural displays. (Buller and Burgoon, Interpersonal Deception Theory, 1996) THE RESPONDENTS DILEMMA: TRUTH BIAS OR SUSPICION? According to Burgoon and Buller (1996: 203-242) that respondents tend to think of interpersonal messages truthful, complete, direct, relevant, and clear-even when the speaker is lying. So no matter what you might say about the girl is accompanying her mother for the medical treatment and medical care, the lecturer probably will believe the girl. Whatever the reason for the assumption of veracity, Buller and Burgoon are convinced that whatever is said by people close to you, then the respondent would still believe the words despite occasional doubts. The experts of the theory found that whatever is said by people who close to us and that we love, friends and family will be hoping to get the honesty and truth of the spoken words. Although sometimes a strong truth and valid bias between each other face to face interaction, people also can doubt our word.  The lecturer may also suspicious of the doubt that the girl say after listening to gossip or news about the reality that the word her mom was not according to the girl biological mother. Buller and Burgoon define a suspicion as state of doubt or distrust that is held without sufficient evidence or proof. (Buller and Burgoon, Interpersonal Deception Theory, 1996) Phosphotransferase Systems: Regulations and Types Phosphotransferase Systems: Regulations and Types Abstract Not a single specific class of antimicrobial agent during the past few decades has yet been discovered leading to development of the new improved drugs for humans. Regardless of the enhanced existing class potency, the requirements for the new agents of anti-microbes continue. The purpose of this study was to explore the PTS system, its regulation and different PTS systems and to investigate catabolite repression and virulence factors in different bacteria especially Escherichia coli and it’s relation with the PTS system. Extensive literature was identified for this purpose to examine the ways through which the PTS system makes antimicrobials and antibiotics. For the discovery of new agents, the PTS or bacterial phosphotransferase system offer a possibility to offer new opportunities. This type of system offers an entry vehicle into the initiation of metabolism pathways and infecting bacteria for such agents. These agents are found to be active on both the sessile and growing forms and due to the eukaryotic lack of the counterparts of PTS these analogues are thought to be non-toxic for the animal host. INTRODUCTION Bacteria often live in inhospitable environments and numerous other bacteria are live in places with no oxygen. Hence, there options for generating the energy are limited. There are many clever ways developed by bacteria that may live off whatever is available and it tends to exploit these best advantage resources. In 1964 Kundig, Ghosh, and Roseman highlighted a novel system of sugar phosphorylation in one of the novel phosphorylating sugar system in Escherichia coli. It is a key transport system type which is exclusively found in the world of prokaryotes and the best-known group translocation system, a process in which an organic molecule such as glucose is transported to the cell while being chemically modified. The exclusive features of this phosphotransferase system comprise of phosphoenolpyvate (PEP) as the phosphoryl donor for phosphorylating sugar and the three vital catalytic entities present termed as Enzyme II, Enzyme I, and heat-stable, histidine-phosphorylatable protein HPr. The PTS system is responsible for the transport of sugar across the membranes of the bacteria as per the subsequent reaction: PEP (in) + carbohydrate (out) – pyruvate(in) + carbohydrate –phosphate (in) The system of phosphotransferase is often catalyzed by the concomitant sugars phosphorylation as well as hexitols and it usually regulates the response mechanisms dependant on the carbohydrate availability (Postma, et al.1993). It is a very complex system as it often acts as an environmental sensor and therefore requires performance of a numerous functions to sense and successfully delivering a desirable carbohydrate. Typical bacterial cells make many similar transporters that all stand ready to import whatever sugars are available. A complex regulatory network makes a decision which transporters are switched on and used at any given time. The PTS is also a very energy-efficient system when compared to the other transport systems in the cell. Many transporters use ATP to power the import of nutrients, but PTS uses a molecule of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP-one of the intermediates in glycolysis) instead, to power the PTS reaction and provide the phosphate. This pre-phosphorylation of sugars primes them for entry into the energy production pathways (Kotrba, et al. 2001). In E.coli the PTS system is made up of two general cytoplasmic proteins: Enzyme I and a heat-stable protein (HPr). Both participate in transport of all PTS carbohydrates. The substrate-specific protein – Enzyme II consists of three functional domains: IIA, IIB (cytoplasmic and hydrophilic) and IIC (membrane-bound and hydrophobic) (Prescott, 2002). The Enzyme II domains are specific only for one or a few carbohydrates (Postma, et al 1993). However, in the PTS fructose transport of E. coli Enzyme I and HPr are fused together with central M domain and it is specific for this particular transport only (Reizer Saier, 1997). Figure 1 represents the constituents of the PTS system. Figure 1. Components of the bacterial PTS system: phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), Enzyme I (EI), heat-stable protein (HPr), and Enzyme II (EIIA, EIIB, EIIC). Figure illustrates two examples of the PTS system in E. coli: glucose-specific and mannitol-specific. In this project I would like to present a review of literature on the PTS structure, role and regulation. I would like to show the connection between virulence and the phosphotransferase system in different bacteria and finally to examine the ways in which we can use the PTS system to create new antimicrobials and antibiotics without targeting the commensal organisms within the host. PTS structure Enzyme I Enzyme I (EI) is one of the two universal compounds at the entry point of the PEP-dependent sugar phosphotransferase system. The EI monomer consists of three structurally independent domains which are separated by long linkers (Fig. 2): N-terminal protein-resistant region (EIN) and the PEP-binding C-terminal domain (EIC) and linker helix that separates them (Margques et al, 2006). The N-terminal region is responsible binds HPr,and the C-terminal region which consists of the initial acceptor of the phosphoryl group (His-190) which binds PEP (Oberholzer et al, 2005). EI can appear as a monomer and a dimer (EI-P) but only a dimeric form can be phosphorylated (Chauvin et al 1994). It has been recently shown that magnesium and PEP influence both forms of EI but it remains unclear how a change from monomer to dimer activates an ability of EI to autophosphorylate (Patel et al 2006). Experiments on gel filtration showed that EIN which does not dimerize lacks a PEP-binding site but is still able to accept phosphaote from HPr in reversible phosphorylation (Chauvin et al 1996). Figure 2. Diagram of the Enzyme I model showing N- and C terminal domains with linker helix (Marques ate al, 2006). EI catalyses the first step in the PTS cascade. The activity levels of EI will determine the phosphorylation state of all PTS components, therefore it plays a key role in regulatory functions of PTS (Patel et al 2006). Low molecular heat-stable protein (HPr) HPr (histidine containing phosphocarier protein) is a single-domain cytoplasmic protein with molecular mass of 9kDa. Its main function is to accept the phosphoryl group from EI. Recently it has also been found that HPr acts as a intermediate in the signaling cascade that regulates transcription of genes which are related to the carbohydrate-response system. Those functions both involve reactions of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, but at a different sites (Maurer et al 2001). The structure and function of HPr has been studied in the wide range of organisms. It was purified, inter alia, from: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Lactobacillus lactis, Bacillus subtilis and Streptococcus pyogenes. HPr consists of four-stranded antiparallel B-sheet and L-helixes (two long and one short) set at one side of B-sheet (Fig.3). Interestingly the amino acid sequence in HPr protein differs among the species however, it shows similarity in secondary-structure elements and its tertiary fold (Hahmann et al, 1998). Figure 3. Structure of the HPr by Feng et al, 2001. Enzyme II complexes Enzyme II complexes are specific to one or few carbohydrates and consist of two hydrophllic domains: IIA and IIB, and one membrane-bound hydrophilic domain IIC. All three domains can be fused together in a single polypeptide chain or exist as two or three chains that interact with each other (Saier Reizer 1992). The first EII domain that was described was the II Man complex in E. coli which was later illustrated as EIIA and EIIB (Kundig Roseman, 1971). IIA domain carries the first permease-specific phosphorylation site and becomes phosphortlated on anhistidine residue by HPr. Domains IIA and IIB are similar in size and usually consists of 100-160 amino acids residues. IIC domain can form 6-8 transmembrane helixes and has around 350 residues (Kotrba et al 2001). The phosphoryl group is transferred from IIA to histidine or cysteine residue on IIB domain, depending on the carbohydrate transported. The third domain IIC is a substrate- specific site that develops a translocation channel for the sugar to be taken up through the membrane. Some specific transporters, like Mannose family in E.coli, possess another membrane-bound protein IID(ebi.ac.uk many references) Recognition of specific carbohydrate by IIC is not fully understood, yet. Although it is known that a certain motif, [Gn]-[Iv]-[Tsn]- E, plays a role in sugar identification. This highly conserved motif is shared among the IIE families and is located in the loop which is faced towards exterior of the cell and may be a part of the sugar-binding site (Robillard Bross 1999). Also, a glutamate residue located in the most conserved part of IIC GITE sequence (Chang et al 2005) is involved in phosphoryl transfer to the bound sugar ( Lengeler et al 1990). Families of PTS Enzyme II A bacterial cell may contain many PTS EII complexes, each exclusive to a different sugar. Most of those complexes share a number of characteristics: three domains IIA, IIB and IIC organized as free or fused structures which can be coupled by linkers and/or arranged in a different order (Lengeler, 1990). Four superfamilies have been described according to the evolutionary status (Saier et al., 2005): Glucose-Fructose-Lactose (Glu-Fru-Lac); L-ascorbate D-galactitol (Asc-Gat); Mannose (Man); Dihydroxyacetone (Dha). The Glu-Fru-Lac and Man super families are well-described. They are well incorporated with the PTS and are not able to transport carbohydrates by any other mechanism (Saier et al., 2005). D-Fructose is the only sugar that is taken into glycolysis reaction without rearranging its carbon backbone. Many bacteria lack other permeases but most possess fructose-specific PTS permease. It has been proposed that D-fructose was ubiquitous and specific to primeval organisms (Saier, 1977). In E .coli the multiphosphoryl transfer proteins (MTPs) were found in fructose-specific EI-like and HPr-like domains. MTPs are domains that display homology to modular proteins encoded by genes of some proteobacteria (Reizer Saier, 1997). The IIA Fru-like domain with central M domain of unknown function, phosphorylates IIB domain which is fused with another IIBC domain (Kotrba et al., 2001). It is the only example of protein with two IIB domains fused with IIC. In glucose permease of E. coli, EIIGlc contains protein IIA Glu encoded by crr gene and the IIB Glu encoded by pts gene. EIIA phosphorylates EIIB at a cysteine residue which is fused to EIIC through a linker (Postma et al., 1993). Other superfamilies like Asc-Gat have been characterized from genetic and biochemical view fairly recently (Nobelman Lengeler, 1996; Hvorupet al., 2003) and can act as secondary carriers depending on their specificity. Enzyme II complex of DHA family displays some similar mechanical characteristics to ATP-dependent precursor and PEP- dependent complex. Role of the PTS in chemotaxis Phosphotransferase system is well known of its ability to perform many different functions (Table 1). The role of PTS in chemotaxis has been described in 1974 by Alder and Epstein. They studied glucose transporter as chemoreceptor by using mutants lacking galactose binding protein. Mutants lacking EII glu but not EII Man did not move towards D-glucose and mutants lacking EII Man not EII Glu carried out movement with the specificity for D-mannosamine. Therefore, enzymes II work as recognition elements for specific chemoreceptors however the exact interaction between PTS and receptor-mediated signal remains unclear. Table 1. Functions of the PTS. In E. coli and many other bacteria, sensory centre is composed of chemoreceptors: kinase CheA and n adapter protein CheW that are organized in group which increase the signal through communication between those protein. Studies in vivi showed that signal from PTS is sent directly to the chempreceptors ChA and CheW through mediated interactions of EI and perhaps EIIA Glu (Neumann et al., 2012). The participation of EI and EIIA Glu in chemotaxis is reflects the importance of those components in other functions. The phosphorylation status of EI is associated with the rate of uptake of sugars. Phosphorylation of EIIA Glu is affected by the uptake of other sugars, not only glucose, maltose and trehalose because of the reversible reactions that occur within the PTS (Lengeler Jahreis, 2009). Regulation of PTS sugar uptake Thursday 20/03 3.1 Inducer exclusion and catabolite repression in E. coli 3.2 Global regulation of CCR 3.3 CCR and inducer exclusion in other bacteria Saturday 22/3 3.2 role and regulation by the EIIA Glu PTS protein in enteric bacteria 3.3 The Mlc transcription factor regulated by EIICBGlc in enteric bacteria 3.4 Regulation by HPr-Ser –P on low G+C Gram positive bacteria Sunday 23/03 Carbon metabolism and virulence in bacteria 4.1 Enterobacteria – E. coli 4.2 Vibrio cholera 4.3 Klebsiella pneumonia 4.4 Clostridium difficile PTS as a potential target for drug therapy Conclusion References (124)